Jessica Didyoung

Levy, H. M. (2008). Meeting the Needs of All Students through Differentiated Instruction: Helping Every Child Reach and Exceed Standards. The Clearing House , 161-164.

Research Problem: The article aims to discover ways in which to better differentiate the content, the process and the product in a classroom with students of varying levels. It discusses why it is important to ensure that each student is able to participate and understand the content and lessons at their level.

Research Questions: The article questions what the best way to differentiate instruction in a classroom. It discusses different forms of assessment and ways of groupings in order to discover the ways in which each type can be used beneficially and times when certain assessments and groupings will not work.

Data Collection Procedure: The article discusses the methods of differentiate in terms of the 5^th grade classroom of Mrs.Johnson who has a particularly challenging class in terms of ELL learners as well as behavioral disorders.

Findings: The article found that using a pre assessment was very beneficial in a classroom because it allows the teacher to understand where each student is starting out and therefore they have an idea of what kind of understanding each indidviual student has and where to go from there. Formative assessment gives the teacher a chance to check in with the students progress and summative allows the teacher to see if a child was successful in learning the skill. Grouping plays a big part in differentiation because there are many types of grouping that can be done for instance, by interests, by level, or by learning styles. With each way of grouping the teacher is able to take individuals needs in mind and help each student to be placed where they will feel comfortable and get the most of their work.

Jennifer Lambert

Coccari , Diane. “We Want to Work With Our Friends.” 156-169. (Links to an external site.)http://oldweb.madison.k12.wi.us/sod/car/abstracts/63.pdf (Links to an external site.)

Research Problem:

The research problem occurred in one of the classes of the author when she saw the same grouping of students always partnered together. She also noticed that it would be the same collection of students participating and sharing their ideas during classroom discussions. The author noticed these problems in her class which consisted of ten students who were recent immigrants; 12 Caucasian students, one African boy; two African American-Caucasian biracial students, four Hmong students, two Cambodian students, one Laotian boy, one Vietnamese girl, and one Honduran girl which created a lot of separation in the class.

Research Questions:

The author questioned how can she increase participation in all-class discussions by those less willing to risk and share. Additionally, the author wondered how she could help the students in her classroom feel comfortable working with diverse groupings of classmates and their desire to always be with their friends.

Data Collection Procedure:

The author performed an experiment where she provided and made different variety of cooperative groupings and class formations. She made videotapes of cooperative group activities and also took notes about the outcomes of the cooperative groups. She also provided evaluations for the students about class participation and working with partners. As the last part of the study she conducted parent conferences.

Findings:

The research showed that the students still wanted to work with their friends and line up in the same order as they had previously done. However, with male dominance, the unsafe feeling that was present in the classroom in the beginning of the year went away. As far as cooperative groups, the students became able to work well together as a whole group. When looking at all class participation, the results showed that some students participated more in front of the class, while others were still reluctant to come and share in front of the class. Lastly, even though academic achievement was not one of the author’s initial questions, the research suggests that their scores went up, only by a little bit.

Getting “Up to Code”: Preparing for and Confronting Challenges when Teaching for Social Justice in Standards-Based Classrooms

Alison G. Dover

Research Problem:

In today’s educational culture of teaching to the standards and curriculum provided by the districts, many teachers are finding it difficult to implement social justice into their everyday classroom activities. Social justice activities do not need to be their own separate entities, but rather activities that can be integrated into other content lessons and activities. Alison Dover focuses on twenty-four secondary English Language Arts teachers who were able to balance the demands of a standards-based classroom, while still implementing social justice lessons into their daily routines. This article focuses on the struggles and challenges these teachers faced when trying to perform this balancing act, how they managed to overcome them and recommendations for future teachers who are looking to integrate social justice into their classrooms. Some of the challenges include, “restrictive school policies, a lack of support for colleagues, resistance from students, and insufficient personal, or professional resources”.

Research Question:

How can a teacher successfully balance the demands of teaching for social justice and a standards-based practice?

Data Collection Procedure:

Twenty-four secondary English Language Arts teachers were recruited participants who self-identified as teaching for social justice in standards-based, secondary ELA classrooms. In order to collect data from these individuals, the author had teachers respond to a six-item open-ended questionnaire that focused on their definition of “teaching for social justice”, in addition to their “school’s curricular and accountability-related requirements, how they implemented their vision of teaching for social justices within the context of a standards-based instruction and any challenges they faced when doing so”. Once the questionnaire was complete, participants “submitted and analyzed an original lesson plan that they considered an example for teaching with social justice with standards-based curriculum”. Through this, the author was able to assess the teachers “beliefs and priorities relative to a social justice curriculum as well as how their curriculum addressed state and federal content standards”. She looked to see if the submitted lesson plans addressed specific social justices and ELA topics, while also assessing the strategies used to balance the specific curricular standards.

Findings 

The balancing act that Dover analyzes should be a skill that every pre-service and current teacher is able to implement into their classroom, even in standards-based classrooms. Teaching for social justice in the classrooms allows for classrooms to become more culturally aware of the community and world that they live in and become advocates of change in their community. It requires teachers to, “1. Assume all students are participants in knowledge construction, have high expectations for students and themselves, and foster learning communities; 2. Acknowledge, value, and build upon students’ existing knowledge, interests, cultural and linguistic resources; 3. Teach academic skills and bridge gaps in students’ learning; 4. Work in reciprocal partnership with student’s families and communities; 5. Critique and employ multiple forms of assessment; and 6. explicitly teach about activism, power and inequity in schools and society”.  By using this criteria to create a social justice based classroom that fits the needs of the curriculum, the curriculum needs to, “1. Reflect students’ personal and cultural identities; 2. include explicit instruction about oppression, prejudice and inequity; and 3. Make connections between curricular standards and social justice topics”. In addition, the pedagogy strategies implemented to create a social justice based, classroom environment must be ones that, “creates supportive classroom climates that embraces multiple perspectives, emphasize critical thinking and inquiry, and promotes students’ academic, civic and personal growth.  As teachers continue to look into the field of teaching for social justice, they need to make the connections between education and social action themselves, before they can teach their students to do so. Teachers need a sense of themselves as social activists in their classroom and community. The goal for implementing social justice into the classroom should be to raise students’ awareness of inequity and injustice while promoting student’s social action.

Citation:

Dover, A. (2013). Getting “Up to Code”: Preparing for and Confronting Challenges when Teaching for Social Justice in Standards-Based Classrooms. Action in Teacher Education, (35), 89-102.

Erica Paolucci

Full Inclusion: Understanding the Role of Gay and Lesbian Texts and Films in Teacher
Education Classrooms
Jill M. Hermann-Wilmarth

Research Problem:
Recently, the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) community has received an insurmountable amount of attention. It is arguable that the areas receiving the most criticism are same sex marriage and the inclusion of LGBTQ related content in schools. Jill M. Hermann-Wilmarth recognized the inequalities in the school system that surrounded the queer community and therefore attempted to provide a foundation for teachers who struggle with creating a comprehensive learning environment for their students. Within this paper, the author examines the reason’s in which the inclusion of LGBTQ related content is seen as taboo in schools worldwide. Once she narrows these reasons down, she provides future educators with tools necessary to be fully inclusive of their diverse body of students, particularly those who come from same gender families.

Research Questions:
In order to guide her research, Hermann-Wilmarth asks: How can teacher educators better prepare their pre- and in-service teachers to address gay and lesbian issues in elementary school classrooms? What kinds of resistance should teacher educators be prepared for from their students? What types of literature and literacy strategies would support a goal of full inclusion?

Discussion:
The author discusses children’s literature textbooks, picture books, and films as valuable resources in creating an all-encompassing classroom. Furthermore, Hermann-Wilmarth expands on these types of media by explaining what can be learned from each and how the lessons received from them can be incorporated into the elementary classroom.

Findings:
Jill M. Hermann-Wilmarth concludes by explaining the power texts and film have in classrooms. Rather than allowing heteronormativity to govern the classroom, she suggests that pre- and in-service teacher challenge heterosexism and therefore, includes forms of media that fall outside the norm. The author believes that the more teachers integrate LGBTQ issues into their classrooms, the more elementary schools will be willing to address these issues which in turn, will aid in creating a safe school environment for all students.

Richards, S. (n.d.). What strategies can I incorporate so that The English Language Learners in My Classroom Will Better Understand Oral Directions? In Action Research Studies (pp. 59-77).

By: Maria Zullo

Research Problem:
A second and third grade teacher at John Muir Elementary school has a class of 14 second graders and 10 third graders. Her class consists of native English speakers as well as English Language Learners. She notices that when she gives her students oral directions, she says them and then asks the students if they have any questions. Most of the time, none of the students have questions at this time. However, when she sits down to let her students work independently, most of the ELL students then come up to her with questions. She is confused as to why they do not respond when she asks if they need clarification, but then come up to her once she is done.

Research Questions:
Why are the students asking questions after she is done giving directions?

How can she find out why the students are doing this?

What can she do differently so that they will ask questions once they are prompted to?

What can she do so that her oral directions are clearer in general?

Data Collection Procedure:
In order to find out why the students were not asking questions when she prompted them to, but rather asking them once she had left them to work independently, she decided that she was going to journal everyday and also interview her students. She found that she quickly forgot to journal or gave up on it, but the interviews were a helpful method of discovering reason for the students’ actions. In these student interviews the ELL’s told her that they did not understand what she was saying or that she was talking too fast.

Findings:
Through the student interviews, she discovered that her students did not understand her oral directions to ask questions because they did not know what she was saying or because she was talking too fast. In order to make her oral directions clearer she began to slow down her speech, repeat the directions, write the directions on the board and also model what the students were supposed to be doing. She noticed that these strategies drastically changed the dynamic of the classroom and even the native English speakers benefitted from the changes. Although there will always be times when the ELL students have questions, these new methods allowed for the students to stop asking questions later on and to start asking them when prompted.

Lapayese, Yvette V., Ursula S. Aldana, and Eduardo Lara. “A Racio-Economic Analysis Of Teach For America: Counterstories Of TFA Teachers Of Color.” Penn GSE Perspectives On Urban Education 11.1 (2014): 11-25. ERIC. Web.
Erica Rolek

Research Problem:
Over the years, many alternative teacher training programs have been developed in order to address the issue of the miseducation of students in the nation’s neediest areas. One of these programs that has risen above the rest in terms of popularity is Teach For America (TFA). While the students that TFA serve are 90% African-American, Latino, and Native American, only 14% of hired corps members are African-American and 11% are Latino, leaving 75% of White corps members entering these urban and rural schools attended by primarily children of color. This article examines the insights and experiences of fifteen teachers of color who have participated in TFA by sitting them down for extensive interviews about how TFA handled the topic of race while they were active corps members.

Research Questions:
While the interviews are based on the broad topic of race in TFA, the two main questions that guide the study of the article are: “How does TFA address issues of race and racism in the recruitment and support of its teacher corp?” and “How do TFA educators of color perceive the impact of alternative teaching programs in economically disenfranchised communities of color?”

Data Collection:
A total of fifteen teachers who were part of a Master’s educational program with an emphasis on social justice were selected to participate in the interviews conducted for this study. They all had been teaching for at least two years and were all extremely knowledgeable in issues regarding race and power. Five of these teacher participants identified as African-American and ten identified as Latino. Each teacher participated in an in-depth interview, which addressed these three things: “knowledge and beliefs about race, power, and education, the information on the participant and her/his experiences in the program, and the perception of the program’s impact in economically disenfranchised communities of color.”

Findings:
The participants stated that TFA develops superficial “racial know-how” for its white teachers, but does not address the issues of race nearly as in-depth as it should. The participants stated that they did not get much out of the large group discussions due to the fact that they seemed to be designed for White teachers who had never had a class on race, and that discussions never got too controversial, out of fear of making the White teachers uncomfortable. The participants also seemed to come to a consensus that TFA benefits the economic interest of Whites, but it has a questionable impact in improving the education of poor youth of color. At the end of the article, the researchers suggest ways for TFA to improve recruitment, the application and interview, the summer training institute, and ongoing training and support with a greater emphasis on race awareness and education.

McLeod, J., & Reynolds, R. (2010). Teaching Human Rights across the Curriculum. Ethos,        18(3), 17-21.

Desirée Ganz

Research Problems

Millennium Goals have set forth to implement a curriculum in classrooms where social justice, liberty and equity are practiced. The Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989) was designed to protect students under age 18 and implementing such a curriculum as mentioned by millennium goals will be a step in the right direction so that learners can develop to their full potential and live peacefully while schools become centers of peace education. Teachers may use the transmission model to have students learn about human rights, but the best method is to have students learn through human rights, social justice and equity.

Research Questions

Julie McLeod and Ruth Reynolds question the difference between learning about and learning through human rights for the best educational model for social justice. The two authors also question the benefits of learning through human rights versus learning about human rights.

Data Collection Procedure

Three different schools were used as case study subjects in order to see how human rights curriculum can be used and how it can be best implemented in order to cover a range of topics in the classroom. The implemented curriculums were observed to see how students could transform from transmission subjects to human rights activists with knowledge about their community and new ideas of how to transform their communities into a place where social justice was practiced.

Findings

Three different schools implemented the Millennium Goals in order to cover very different topics. School A’s students lived in a coastal town and were upset about a long standing conflict between local residents and tourists. This teacher had the students learn through human rights when the students understood their right to freedom of expression. This human right helped students to understand the value of tolerance and to value social responsibility. School B’s students were angry about local graffiti on the school fence and pollution in the river. These students learned through human rights and became environmentally conscientious about their right to a healthy environment. Student C’s students focused on the human rights involved in the intensive language program for new immigrant children. The students learned to value their new country and the responsibility of life in a free society. Although all students learned different values through the curriculum, all students had the opportunity to experience critical thinking, conflict resolution, self-management and coping, communication and to negotiate decisions.

Spalding, Elizabeth. “Social Justice and Teacher Education: A Hammer, a Bell, and a Song.” Journal of Teacher Education. May/June 2010: 191-196.
Erica Roberts

Research Problem:

Social justice serves as “an umbrella term to cover projects” whose goals are to prepare teachers to recognize, name, and combat inequity in schools and society. The author recognize that there are many preservice and inservice teachers who want to teach in socially just ways but have little to no idea how to do so. Even when some people have the tools needed to teach in socially just ways, those tools can sometimes “create resistance, frustration, and confusion among individuals who intend to help…Methodological tools are needed to examine how [teachers and] teacher educators can learn to teach for social justice.”

Data Collection / Findings:

The author decided to use the song, “If I Had a Hammer” by Pete Seeger and Lee Hays to write an editorial on the status of social justice in teacher education. In the editorial, the author took the three tools from the song, the hammer, the bell, and the songs used during a normal work day in 1949 (when the song was written) and translated them into tools that can be used in the fight to teach social justice in schools. In the author’s metaphor, the hammer had become the hammer of justice; the bell the bell of freedom, and the songs the songs of love and caring for one another. The hammer of justice represents the theories and ideologies educators have for learning and teaching about social justice; the bell of freedom acts as the means of sending the message to teachers and teacher educators that social justice; and the songs of love and caring serve to unite those who agree and disagree on the goals of social justice on the idea that in order to create a just, democratic society, everyone must work together.

The author believes that the hammer, the bell, and the song serve as symbols that can help change society and inequities in schools to make them better for students and teachers. She describes the hammer of justice as a tool that can be used to build and construct, but also tear down and destroy. She suggests that educators and teacher educators learn to use the hammer to deconstruct and breakdown institutions of –isms that marginalize students in schools. She insists that the bell of freedom must send a clear message to educators: In order to teach well, you have to know yourself, your students, and their community. Finally, the song of love and caring hones in on care theory and how teachers caring about students is what is needed for the hammer and bell to make socially just teaching possible and effective.

Whipp, J. L. (2013). Developing Socially Just Teachers: The Interaction of Experiences Before, During, and After Teacher Preparation in Beginning Urban Teachers. Journal Of Teacher Education, 64(5), 454-467.
Gianna Esposito

Research Problem:
This article aims to evaluate the effect of urban teacher preparation in terms of developing a social justice orientation in preservice teachers. It looks directly at what elements of urban teacher training programs lead teachers to use socially just teaching practices and takes a look at how teachers concept of socially just teaching changes over the course of the first year in the field.

Research Questions:
This article discusses the definition of socially just teaching and what experiences, during training and during the first year in the field, contributes to the development of socially just teachers. The author explores the importance of using both an individual and structural orientation in dealing with social justice in the classroom. She questions what experiences lead first year teachers to tackle problems from each perspective or from the dual perspective.

Data Collection:
The author conducted a case study on 12 first year teachers who all graduated from the same urban teacher education program. The author asked questions about the new teachers’ own understanding of their orientation towards social justice, how they practice social just teaching, and what they believe has influenced their orientation towards and practice of social justice in the classroom. The majority of the participants in this study were 23 year old while females who had grown up in the suburbs. Data was collected through a combination of phone interviews, a survey, and teaching evaluations of the participants by supervisors.

Findings:
The author found that eight of the teachers studied were both individually and structurally oriented, some of which favored a structural framework (S/I) and some of which favored a more individual framework (I/S). The first group (S/I) used sociocultural and equity frameworks to define socially just teaching. These teachers stood out because of their emphasis on advocacy and consciousness raising. These teachers not only worked to inform and empower their students but also engaged in advocacy projects themselves within their schools. The second group (I/S) used individualist and sociocultural frameworks to describe their teaching practices. This group of teachers focused on culturally responsive caring relationships between teacher and students, they felt strongly that creating rapport with students was crucial to socially just teaching. The other four participants were only individually oriented (I). Overall they struggled to define social justice focusing on the students as individuals without using any sort of sociocultural framework. Without tying in any culture to their views of individual students, this group of teachers showed themselves to be caring but “colorblind”. The eight teachers who saw social justice as a combination of structural and individual frameworks came into their preparation program with prior cross-cultural experiences, additional cultural immersion experiences during college (for example work with the Big Brother Big Sister program), meaningful experiences during training (inspiring mentor/teacher, eye opening classroom discussion/reading), and support during the first year of teaching. Those teachers that remained unable to determine what socially just teaching was and how to embody it were those students who lacked cultural experiences and most importantly did not feel that the subject matter in their justice oriented preparation classes spoke to them, changed them or challenged them. The author suggests that urban education programs consider applicants prior cross-cultural experiences before admission as it seems to indicate the level of commitment towards social justice. She also suggests that cross-cultural experiences should be made more available and perhaps mandatory.

*Great flow chart for developing an orientation towards socially just teaching on page 463

Holloway, John H. “Preparing Teachers for Differentiation Instruction.” Educational Leadership (2000): 82-83.

Research Problem:

Preservice teachers are inadequately trained to differentiate instruction with their students.  Although many novice teachers realize the need for differentiation in their classroom, they are unsure of how to actually implement it into their daily instruction.  Teacher training programs are failing to address the ever-growing diversity in schools by not preparing future teachers with the strategies they need to meet the needs of all their students.

Research Questions:

Author John Holloway questions why teachers are failing to include differentiation into their instructional plans.  He also questions whether there is a better way to assist new teachers to learn the skills as well as help them find ways to fully apply it to their lessons.

Data Collection Procedure:

A couple studies were conducted in order to assess the impact of teacher training programs in respect to differentiated instruction.  The study aimed to figure out whether or not teachers are prepared for dealing with a diverse variety of learners.  Both studies conducted research through confessions of real teachers on their feelings about teaching to a diverse population.

Findings:

The data found that many teachers felt ill prepared when it came to meeting the needs of all of their students and they agreed that they needed some improvement in that area. Many of the teachers felt as though their teaching training programs did not give them the skills they needed to teach the various ethnic and racial groups in their classroom effectively.  The research findings also discovered that preservice teachers are not given enough courses on the subject to actually help them in the classroom.  Many of these teachers also felt as though they were not given enough support and encouragement from their professors and supervisors to differentiate.  The data suggested that teacher education programs be revised in order to better address the diversity of today’s population.

Martin, Susan Ferguson, and Andre Green. “Striking A Balance.” Science Teacher 79.4 (2012): 40-43. Academic Search Premier. 10 Oct. 2012.

Research Problem:

The authors identify the dilemma of providing instruction to English language learners that not only teaches them subject content, but also helps them with their English development. Many ELL students fail to understand the content because the instruction is not being differentiated to their individual language needs. The authors aim to find a solution to address this problem in order to better meet the needs of today’s linguistically diverse culture.

Research Questions:

Authors Susan Ferguson Martin and Andre Green questioned how learning centers could be used in the classroom to make sure that all students, regardless of their language, can interact with the content.  They also questioned how to effectively implement the learning centers in a well-organized fashion so that each and every student is challenging their individual language skills while learning the content thoroughly.

Data Collection Procedure:

The authors implemented centers into a high school biology classroom that consisted of 18 ELL and 5 native English speakers.  Each center considered learning objectives in order to make sure that it had the proper accommodations for each ELL student. The centers consisted of a worksheet center, a writing center, a computer center, and a personal dictionary center.  Each center focused on content and offered appropriate differentiated accommodations for a variety of fluency levels.

Findings:

Using learning centers in a classroom with ELL students are a great tool to ensure that everyone is involved.  Centers provide a way to assess ELL students’ understanding of the content matter without penalizing them for their language difficulties.  Centers allow ELLs to master the content while giving them the opportunity to interact academically with their peers through a non-threatening means.

 Kosanovich, Marcia, Karen Ladinsky, Luanne Nelson, and Joseph Torgesen. “Differentiated Reading Instruction: Small Group Alternative Lesson Structures for All Students.” Florida Center for Reading Research (n.d.): 1-9.

Research Problem:

The article was created in order to offer instructional alternatives to schools in Florida under the “Reading First” program.  Although the program has good intentions, the teachers within these select schools seemed to be missing the mark when it came to offering differentiated reading instruction to their students. Many of the “Reading First” schools were actually falling more behind and the students were failing to meet grade level requirements in reading.  Teachers in these schools need extra support and training in order to better meet the needs of their struggling readers.

Research Questions:

The authors bring several key terms into question in this article.  They question the meaning of differentiated instruction as well as how to implement it into the classroom and how it works in small groups.  They also questioned the two kinds of structures to use when teaching differentiated reading instruction. The two types of lesson structures are guided reading and skills-focused lessons.

Data Collection:

The research observed students oral reading fluency over a period of time from first to third grade in “Reading First” schools. The data was measured according to whether or not the students were meeting the benchmark requirements in reading for their grade level.  The researchers also collected data by observing the teachers’ instruction methods during small group reading sessions.

Findings:

The data revealed an overall decline in students’ oral reading fluency under the “Reading First” program.  This proved that teachers needed to be better trained in differentiated instruction in order to ensure that all students are progressing and no student is getting left behind.  The most effective reading teachers make sure to incorporate both guided reading lessons as well as skills-focused lessons into their reading instruction.  They can also evaluate all of their students in order to determine which areas need more attention and therefore give them the instruction they need to strengthen the weaknesses.

Tomlinson, Carol Ann. “Mapping a Route Toward Differentiated Instruction.” Personalized Learning 57.1 (1999): 12-16.

Research Problem:

It is important to acknowledge that students learn in a variety of ways.  Differentiated instruction a crucial element in every classroom in order to ensure that all students academic success.  However, many teachers are either not using it at all or using it incorrectly. There must be engagement, a thorough understanding, as well as opportunities to attend to students’ differences.

Research Questions:

Carol Ann Tomlinson questions whether or not it is reasonable to expect every student in the class to learn the same thing in the same way. She also considers how students can take responsibility for their own learning.  Most importantly, she questions what methods should be used in order to effectively conduct differentiated instruction in the classroom.

Data Collection:

The author compared and contrasted three different classrooms teaching the same content. In the first classroom, the teacher provides instruction that lacks engagement, understanding, and there was barely any opportunity for differentiation.  The second classroom provided some differentiation that was engaging, but it lacked meaning and the students were left with little understanding of the topic.  The third classroom used differentiation in the correct way so that the student were able to discover meaning within the topic, they were heavily engaged, and they were all able to find understanding in a way that was appropriate for them.

Findings:

The third classroom used differentiation correctly because the teacher established a clear goal in which to meet by the end of the unit as well as identified an essential question by which to spark the interest of her students. She makes sure that all of her lessons are relevant and engaging to each and every one of her students.  She is also fully aware of every child’s skill level and does her best to have each child meet the ultimate goal. The third classroom proved that differentiation is not something to implement occasionally, but rather it is a general philosophy of how the classroom in run.  Differentiation is not so much about what the student learns, but it is really about how the student learns and the journey between start and finish.

Milner, H. R. (2011). Culturally Relevant Pedagogy in a Diverse Urban Classroom. The Urban Review, 43, 66-89.

Research Problem:
Milner observes the challenges and successes of being a white teacher in a diverse urban area.  He stresses an importance of culturally relevant pedagogy in the classroom and the impact that it has on students’ commitment and learning.  Milner uses past studies to identify best practices then designed his own research to provide evidence for his theory.

Research Questions:
The article defines culturally relevant pedagogy and outlines the desired outcomes of his theory.  In a culturally relevant classroom, students should demonstrate academic success, sociopolitical consciousness and cultural competence.  The research aims to provide evidence that this pedagogy is not only attainable but is highly successful.

Data Collection:
To gather data using culturally relevant pedagogy, Milner observes a teacher in an urban district.  The observations take place at Bridge Middle School in the southeast part of the United States.  The teacher, Mr. Hill, was selected through consistent recommendation from his peers.  Mr. Hill had been teaching for only three years and had already been voted ‘Teacher of the Year’ in Bridge Middle School.  The author observed the classroom one to two times a week over a two-year period.  The majority of his time in the classroom, Milner was present as an observer and only rarely did he take part in classroom activities or conversation.

Findings:
Milner first gathers other research to develop a definition of culturally relevant pedagogy and cultural competence.  He stresses the importance of using students’ culture in the classroom to create more meaningful learning and help students to better understand the world outside the classroom, most importantly to see contradictions and inequities that exist.  The ultimate goal is to empower students.  Culturally relevant pedagogy has three tenants; academic achievement, sociopolitical consciousness and cultural competence.  Academic achievement is considered in the students’ ability to learn rather than successes on high-stakes testing.  Sociopolitical consciousness seeks macro level impact on the students’ educational experiences.  Cultural competence is achieved when students understand their own culture and are able to expand that understanding to other cultures.

Milner found the subject of his study, Mr. Hall, to be an exceptional example to the culturally relevant pedagogy he claims would aid in success in an urban classroom.  Milner identifies the actions and abilities of Mr. Hall that help him to reach this cultural competence.  As a middle school teacher, Mr. Hall forms meaningful and authentic relationships with the students.  To do this, he pays close attention to the needs of each student and does not work on a one-size-fits-all approach.  He recognizes student identities but more importantly does not shy away from confronting and discussing matters of race.  This begins with identifying himself to the students and sharing what is common between he and them.  These relationships create a sense of family in the classroom which plays a strong role in the success of the students.  When you are in a family, you do not want to see others fail.  Mr. Hill pushes students to reach their best abilities and students recognize that he is not going to accept any less than their best.

Milner finds this instruction and focus on relationships to be very beneficial in the classroom and encourages they be used more often.  There is not quantitative data provided to further back these results.

McLeod, J., & Reynolds, R. (2010). Teaching Human Rights across the Curriculum. Ethos, 18(3), 17-21.

Research Problems

Millennium Goals have set forth to implement a curriculum in classrooms where social justice, liberty and equity are practiced. The Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989) was designed to protect students under age 18 and implementing such a curriculum as mentioned by millennium goals will be a step in the right direction so that learners can develop to their full potential and live peacefully while schools become centers of peace education. Teachers may use the transmission model to have students learn about human rights, but the best method is to have students learn through human rights, social justice and equity.

Research Questions

Julie McLeod and Ruth Reynolds question the difference between learning about and learning through human rights for the best educational model for social justice. The two authors also question the benefits of learning through human rights versus learning about human rights.

Data Collection Procedure

Three different schools were used as case study subjects in order to see how human rights curriculum can be used and how it can be best implemented in order to cover a range of topics in the classroom. The implemented curriculums were observed to see how students could transform from transmission subjects to human rights activists with knowledge about their community and new ideas of how to transform their communities into a place where social justice was practiced.

Findings

Three different schools implemented the Millennium Goals in order to cover very different topics. School A’s students lived in a coastal town and were upset about a long standing conflict between local residents and tourists. This teacher had the students learn through human rights when the students understood their right to freedom of expression. This human right helped students to understand the value of tolerance and to value social responsibility. School B’s students were angry about local graffiti on the school fence and pollution in the river. These students learned through human rights and became environmentally conscientious about their right to a healthy environment. Student C’s students focused on the human rights involved in the intensive language program for new immigrant children. The students learned to value their new country and the responsibility of life in a free society. Although all students learned different values through the curriculum, all students had the opportunity to experience critical thinking, conflict resolution, self-management and coping, communication and to negotiate decisions.

Differentiated Instruction: Abstracts

Carol Ann Tomlinson. “Differentiation Instruction in the Elementary Grades.”  Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education.  August 2000.

Research Problem: 

In elementary classrooms, some students struggle with learning, while some are beyond the level of other learners, and the rest fit somewhere in between.  Furthermore, each of these students learns in different ways.  Teachers must figure out how to reach all types of learners and they do this by differentiating their instruction.

Research Questions:

What is differentiated instruction?  Why differentiate instruction in Elementary classrooms?  What makes differentiation successful?  What is the best way to begin differentiation?

Data Collection Procedures:

The author uses a variety of resources including articles and books, written on the topic of differentiation to answer her research questions.

Findings:

Teachers can differentiate instruction in four ways in the elementary classroom: content, process, product, and learning environment.  Differentiation is essential to maximizing each student’s potential.  According to Vygotsky, it is important for students to be taught at the appropriate level, which requires differentiation since no two students are alike.  Meaningful, ongoing assessment, flexible grouping, and the creation of “respectful activities” that are worthwhile for all students are important factors in successful differentiation.

Jay McTighe and John L. Brown.  “Differentiated Instruction and Educational Standards: Is Détente Possible?” Theory into Practice.  Vol. 44, No 3 Summer 2005.  234-244.

Research Problem:

Teachers have a hard time meeting high-stakes standards and addressing the needs of diverse learners.  The practices teachers must employ in order to meet NCLB are often at odds with instructional practices recommended by educational research.  Teachers feel that they must choose between meeting standards and reaching a diverse body of learners.

Research Questions:

How can teachers address required content and grade-level performance standards while remaining responsive to individual students?  Can differentiation and standards coexist?  How do teachers maintain standards without standardization?

Data Collection Procedures: 

The authors look at the success of the backward-design process to help educators plan to meet standards with content and the learners in mind.

Findings: 

McTighe and Brown found that the backward-design method of planning lessons aligns with the goal of providing every student with a rigorous education in line with standards that promote understanding.  They found that curriculum planning requires the development of big ideas, controlling themes, and conceptual organizers that make learning experiences more meaningful.  Ongoing assessment is an important part of this differentiating instruction.  A commitment to respectful work is also highlighted as a key component of differentiating instruction.  Differentiation and standards can coexist, and standards must not lead to standardization.  There are many different paths to reaching the same standard and what works for one student may not work for another.

Carol Ann Tomlinson. “Deciding to Teach Them All.” Educational Leadership. Vol. 61, No 2 October 2003. 6-11.  Print.

Research Problem:

A teacher in a center-based school for students with IQs above 140 decides to try the curriculum in a general education classroom.  She teaches in a diverse classroom and must adapt her lessons to the new environment and students.

Research Questions:

Do I intend to teach each individual child?  How do I support each student’s persistent movement towards excellence and expertise?

Data Collection Procedures:

A teacher moves from a school where she taught students with IQs over 140 to a school where she has a diverse classroom of learners.  She uses the same curriculum in her new classroom and Tomlinson reports on the teachers’ strategies and findings.

Findings:

It is paramount to foster excellence and equity in a diverse body of learners.  The way the teacher featured in the article framed her questions about her students changed the way she approached the solutions to these questions.  Rather than asking “what labels do my students have?” she asked “what are their particular interests and needs?”  She allowed these needs and interests to guide her instruction rather than their labels.  “Principles for Fostering Equity and Excellence in Academically Diverse Learners,” is a chart at the end of the article that summarizes the teaching practices that Tomlinson found to foster differentiation.  These practices include: good curriculum, tasks that respect the learners, teaching up, using flexible grouping, ongoing assessment, and focusing grades on growth.

By Alexandra Patrizio

Marilyn Cochran‐Smith, Karen Shakman, Cindy Jong, Dianna G. Terrell, Joan Barnatt and Patrick McQuillan. “Good and Just Teaching: The Case for Social Justice in Teacher Education.” American Journal of Education. Vol. 115, No. 3 May 2009. 347-377. Print.

Research Problem:

This article mainly addresses teacher quality and how they effect the preparation programs teachers came from. It first looks at how many programs stress teaching social justice in the classroom.  Although many perspective teachers understand the views on social justice, the article claims that they are not always prepared enough to teach them in the classroom.

Research Questions:

1. What is the most important aspect of teaching social justice in the classroom?

2. Do teachers and pre-service teachers have diferent views on the subject?

3. Is there a difference between good teaching and teaching for social justice?

Data Collection Procedure:

In a study done through Boston College’s master’s program for education 12 pre-service  students from all different demographics volenteered to take art in six interviews, five classroom observations, interviews with course interstuctures and supervisors, and a collection of their  work and program materials. Through their program they learned 27 codes of social justice which they were to use while they were in the classroom.

Findings:

Most participants emphasized the “pupil learning” code more than any other of the 27 codes. They were more concerned about a student’s learning ability rather than boosting their self-esteem or spreading political ideologies which is what they learned in their classes regarding social justice. Also, the research suggests the idea that  good teaching and teaching for social justice do not always mix. Teaching for social justice does involve practices and strategies that many people would consider good teaching. Many believe that good  teaching consists of   a student’s ability to learn. Cocran-Smith believes tyhat good teaching should be seen as challenging educational injustices so that  everybody has the same kind of learning opportunities that have, in the past, been reserved for privileged students. This connects the teacher’s classroom practices with social responsibilities seen outside the classroom.

By Kelsey Martin

1. Sleeter, Christine E. “Preparing Teachers for Culturally Diverse Schools: Research and the Overwhelming Presence of Whiteness.” Journal of Teacher Education 52 (2001): 94-106.

Research Problem:

White preservice students are doing a poor job at teaching multicultural perspectives.  Although many of them desire to teach a culture outside of their own, they tend to be very naïve when it comes to their knowledge and experience about the world and other cultures.  Without even realizing, white preservice students often interject stereotypes about certain cultures in their multicultural lessons due to ignorance and a lack of a rich, cultural awareness.  Many of these students have not experienced feelings of discrimination or inequality, so therefore they cannot offer a full understanding when it comes to their young students or teaching a multicultural lesson.

Research Questions:

The author questions whether or not preservice students of color would do a better job at teaching multiculturalism in the classroom due to their natural, cultural experiences throughout their own lives.  She also questions the ability of white preservice students to treat their students equally without allowing stereotypes and judgments to interfere.

Data Collection Procedure:

The article discusses several research studies performed with preservice teachers in order to determine the best method for teaching underserved communities.  One of the studies questions the importance of multicultural education coursework and whether or not it benefits the preservice student in the classroom.  Another study discusses the effectiveness of combining both multicultural coursework and field experience in order to give preservice students a comprehensive background.  Another case study proved that the multicultural coursework was not that helpful because the information was very disconnected and the teachers, in turn, put aside what they learned in the books and taught themselves on the job.

Findings:

All of the research points to the issue of what actually happens in the classroom once the students becomes a full-fledged teacher.  The way in which the teacher conducts her class once she leaves the preservice program is a strong indication of what works and does not work.  Work with preservice teachers needs to follow them into the classroom with continuous professional development and community based learning.

2.  McDonald, Morva A. “The Integration of Social Justice in Teacher Education: Dimensions of Prospective Teachers’ Opportunities to Learn.” Journal of Teacher Education 56 (2005): 418-35.

Research Problem:

Although the classroom is becoming very diverse in the United States these days, the diversity is not reflected in the faculty.  The teachers of these diverse classrooms are primarily white and middle class which strikes a problem in terms of how they relate to their students.  Teacher education must be refigured in order to better address the teachers for appropriately dealing with students from a multitude of backgrounds.

Research Questions:

With the country becoming more and more diverse, Morva McDonald questions what teacher education programs are doing in order to prepare teachers to effectively teach students in increasingly diverse classrooms.  She also questions specific programs’ approach to teaching social justice to preservice teachers.

Data Collection Procedure:

The author performed a comparative case study of two elementary teacher education programs that encourage social justice and equity.  Through qualitative research, the author was able to observe the strengths and weaknesses of the programs for both the educators and the prospective educators.  Pre- and post-surveys were also given to the prospective teachers in order to gain a better sense of how the teacher education programs has influenced and shaped their beliefs surrounding social justice in the classroom.

Findings:

The research showed that both teacher education programs had good intentions when it came to teaching preservice students about social justice issues.  However, social justice was often integrated into the curriculum as more of a concept rather than something to be practiced or implemented in the classroom.  Teacher education programs need to do a better job at tailoring the teaching the specific needs of the prospective teachers’ students in order to make the subject more applicable.

3.  Macgillivray, Ian K. “Social Justice for America’s Schools Queer/Questioning Students: The Demands of Democracy and Educational Equity for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgendered, and.” Education and Urban Society 32 (2000): 303-23.

Research Problem:

The United States is an extremely heteronormative society in which everything is structured around heterosexuality and heterosexual privilege.  Because of this LGBTQ people are consistently at a disadvantage in all aspects of their life, whether it is in marriage, property rights, or education.

Research Questions:

The author questions how these social problems regarding LGBTQ rights can be remedied in order to make the classroom a more welcoming environment.  He also questions way in which schools can become more inclusive and safe so that LGBTQ youth can learn and grow just like all of the other students.

Data Collection Procedure:

Ian Macgillivray collected facts and statistics to prove the severity of LGBTQ abuse and mistreatment within schools.  He also collected information about their high risk for HIV/AIDS and a lack of family support as well as the constant exclusion and neglect from everyone around them.

Findings:

The only way to fix the problem is by opening up the conversation to students within the curriculum.  The name-calling and physical abuse is often due to ignorance and the stereotyping students hear throughout society.  Teachers must take the lead in teaching their students that oppression is wrong and that justice means fairness.  The needs of LGBTQ students need to be recognized in the classroom in order to protect them from facing a life of scrutiny and abuse.

Done by Carolyn Remde

Weidman, C.R. (2002.) Teacher Preparation, Social Justice, Equity: A Review of the Literature. University of Massachusetts School of Education Journal, 35(3) 200-211.

Research Problem:
Social Justice is an important topic in the classroom, and it is often not covered by teachers. To overcome this, it is important that the current social justice education methods are examined, as well as teacher preparation methods. Furthermore, there are many different research theories and practices used in the classroom which are examined in the journal.

Research Questions:
The research questions were: “How are equity and social justice defined and conceptualized in the field of education, and why are equity and social justice key themes in education?” as well as questions asking about teacher education practices and the role of social justice and equity in these practices. Finally, the researchers asked how teachers were being supported “towards equity and social justice orientation” (Weidman 200.) Other implied questions were “how different theories are implemented in teacher education and in the classrooms” and “why are some schools unequal for students.”

Data Collection Procedure:
Weidman used social justice research to explore the different theories discussed. Also, studies have been made from experiences with pre-service and in-service teachers in relation to social justice, diversity, and equality. Teachers also seemed to not approve of social justice education or be very resistant to the idea of it, as found during Weidman’s work in the field. For the most part, not much data collection was made.

Findings:
It was found that it is critical to improve efforts to teach educators about social justice and community issues. There are many gaps in the research about social justice, and there needs to be more clear documentation of the impact of social justice education on teachers. In order to be a successful teacher of social justice, teachers should learn and implement different theories of social justice education, provide consistent social justice education in their lessons, and engage in discussions and analysis about social justice. Reflection about social justice, power and inequalities should be commonly discussed amongst students and teachers. Teaching for social justice was found to help students develop analytical skills that would help them in their school and professional careers. Finally, different theories such as multicultural education were examined – and despite their effectiveness or ineffectiveness, it was found to be important to not approach multicultural and equality education as ‘color blind’, but to discuss the deep-rooted issues of racism and inequality.

Duncan-Andrade, Jeffrey M.R. (2005.) Developing Social Justice Educators. Educational Leadership Journal, 70-73.

Research Problem:
Many urban students are not getting the education they need or deserve, and many teachers do not know how to teach social justice in the classroom. There are some effective teachers in urban schools that seem to adequately meet the needs of their students. Duncan-Andrade finds that much of their success comes from their implementation of social justice pedagogy in the classroom, and seeks to find out exactly how social justice teaching has affected the learning and success of the students being taught.

Research Questions:
The questions being asked are how social justice can affect and improve teaching in urban schools, and how urban schools can adjust to create environments in which teachers can learn and improve upon one another.

Data Collection Procedure:
Three successful teachers at Power Elementary School in Los Angeles were studied: Ms. Grant, Ms. Kim, and Mr. Truong. There was also a teacher inquiry group set up at the school as a three-year program whose purpose was to implement social justice in teacher’s lessons and for teachers to be able to support one another.

Findings:
The three successful teachers were found to have achieved success through their social justice pedagogy, and by helping students implement change in their communities. When students feel empowered to change inequality in their communities, they are more motivated to learn. They can do this by thinking critically about the issues in their communities and trying to solve them constructively, whether it be a letter to the mayor or a protest about selling guns. Another method that helps teachers in urban schools is collaboration with their colleagues. If teachers have a support system, they are much more likely to do well and feel as if they are supported. Teachers should make reflections on their teaching and meet with other teaching professionals, as well as ask for support if needed.

Duncan-Andrade, Jeffrey M.R. (2004.) Toward Teacher Development for the Urban in Urban Teaching. Educational Leadership Journal, (15,4) (339-350.)

Research Problem:
The article recognizes the need of teacher development, support and retention. It states that the low rate of teacher retention is a major issue today. Also, teachers need to work together in order to understand their student’s struggles and correctly address them. There needs to be greater teacher preparation and support for the unique challenges that teachers face in urban schools.

Research Questions:
The article seeks to find out how teacher support groups can lead to more effective teaching and professional development. Another question is “how can teachers address their students in a way that will engage them and bring hope to their community and personal struggles?”

Data Collection Procedure:
Research was done by teacher inquiries at Power Elementary School as well as looking at existing research. A critical inquiry group was formed and observed; it was made up of seven teachers who participated in the program for 3 years.

Findings:
A 2003 NCTAF report revealed a lack of effective teacher support, both pedagogically and in the urban realm itself. Through the test ‘critical inquiry group’, teachers and their methods were observed. In the group, teachers thought critically about their students and the issues surrounding the school. When teachers worked together in solving problems and learned from one another, they were able to discuss issues and ways to move theory and discussion into action to help their students. Also, they realized that issues in the community greatly impacted their students. If the teachers used issues in the community as a springboard for teaching, such as data collecting, students were more interested in the material. Finally, teachers felt better supported and more empowered when they worked alongside their colleagues to create critical inquiry lessons and understand social issues in the classroom.

By Karyn Unger

1. Gorski, Paul C. “The Scholarship Informing the Practice: Multicultural Teacher Education Philosophy and Practice in the United States.” International Journal of Multicultural Education 12.2 (2010): 1-22. Paul C. Gorski. eFolio Minnesota. Web. 2 Feb. 2012. <http://ijme-journal.org/index.php/ijme/article/view/352/513>.

Research Problem: Little research exists regarding the outlooks and consciousness of multicultural teacher education (MTE) practitioners, those who devise and facilitate MTE experiences. Therefore, we know little about the theoretical frameworks that are taught in MTE courses. Hence, we lack knowledge regarding the multicultural education frameworks that educators are prepared to apply in their classrooms. Furthermore, our ability to name the resources that best prepare multicultural teacher educators is also limited.

Research Questions: Which scholarly and trade literature do multicultural teacher educators in the U. S. identify as most influential to their MTE practice? What does this literature suggest about the dispositions and frameworks that multicultural teacher educators are carrying into their practice?

Data Collection Procedure: 220 multicultural teacher educators took an online survey that consisted of seven demographic questions and three “resource” questions. The resource questions asked the participants to cite books, Web sites, films, conferences, and other sources that have greatly influenced their MTE work. Gorski focused his study on the responses to the following survey items. The participants were asked to name:

1. up to two books they would recommend to somebody with little previous knowledge about multicultural education, social justice education, and related topics.

2. up to two books they would recommend to somebody with moderate previous knowledge about these topics.

3. up to two magazines/journals that have been most helpful to them in their MTE work.

Findings: Based on the multicultural teacher educators’ survey responses, Gorski found that MTE practice is influenced by a range of philosophical and theoretical frameworks, particularly liberal and critical approaches. This suggests that theory-practice inconsistencies are not caused by a lack of critical consciousness among MTE practitioners, but rather by problems in the contexts in which they attempt to deliver MTE, particularly resistance to neoliberal influences in teacher education. Gorski also discovered that literature centering race and racism is more influential to the philosophy and practice of MTE than that focused on other identities and oppressions. This implies that MTE practitioners possess greater knowledge about race and racism than about other identities and oppressions and would therefore benefit from professional development opportunities directed towards these other issues.

2. Garii, Barbara, and Audrey Rule. “Integrating Social Justice with Mathematics and Science: An Analysis of Student Teacher Lessons.” Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009): 400-99. Print.

Research Problem: Student teachers have difficulty planning lessons that fully incorporate social justice into mathematics and science content. Yet integrating social justice with mathematics and science curriculum helps students develop the tools of critical thinking, scientific contextualization, and mathematical rigor in addition to empowering them to recognize and start to redress societal oppression and marginalization.

Research Questions: The researchers sought to determine:

1. The pedagogical techniques student teachers utilize to incorporate social justice into science and mathematics curriculum

2. The types of social justice themes student teachers address

3. How to help student teachers design and implement successful social justice understanding in K-12 science and mathematics curriculum through appropriate academic content

Data Collection Procedure: The researchers performed a content analysis of 26 student teachers’ mathematics or science lessons displayed in poster presentations. The posters were examined for the following elements:

1. How were science or mathematics ideas connected to social justice concepts?

2. What was the essential social justice message of the lesson?

3. Were the mathematics or science concepts well taught by the lesson?

4. What were the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson in teaching both social justice and mathematics or science?

Findings: The 26 student teachers implemented four pedagogical approaches to combine social justice and mathematics: data analysis, discussion, modeling, and library/internet investigation. In addition, the student teachers included three key social justice themes in their lessons: diversity and system disparities in human communities and in stewardship of earth. The researchers found that 4 of the 10 elementary lessons and 14 of the 16 secondary lessons taught academic content through an appropriate social justice lens. However, the lessons focused on either the social justice themes or academic content, but not both. Also, 2 elementary lessons and 1 secondary lesson contained erroneous academic content. Furthermore, only 5 of the elementary and secondary lessons successfully taught both academic and social justice content. Therefore, deeper content knowledge, faculty lesson modeling/reflection, and more practicum placements are recommended for student teachers.

3. Esposito, Jennifer, and Ayanna N. Swain. “Pathways to Social Justice: Urban Teachers’ Uses of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy as a Conduit for Teaching for Social Justice.” Perspectives on Urban Education (2009): 38-48. Print.

Research Problem: Urban teachers face challenges as they implement culturally relevant pedagogy. Yet culturally relevant pedagogy serves two important purposes:

1. Draws on students’ home cultures to help them succeed in school

2. Fosters teachers’ ability to enable their students to think critically about the injustices inherent in schools and the broader society.

Culturally relevant pedagogy is linked to social justice education, which helps students form:

1. A sociopolitical consciousness

2. A sense of agency

3. Positive social and cultural identities

Research Questions: The researchers hoped to discover:

1. How do our urban educators perceive the meaning of teaching for social justice?

2. What does teaching for social justice in urban classrooms involve?

Data Collection Procedure: The participants in the study were seven African American urban teachers identified as having an interest in culturally relevant pedagogy and social justice issues. The teachers possessed varying degrees of teaching experience and either held a master’s degree or were in the process of pursuing a master’s degree. The researchers conducted two one-three hour interviews with each of the participants as well as a two-hour focus group session. In addition, the researchers used the constant comparison method, which permitted them to make decisions about how to proceed with the study based on previously collected data. They analyzed the participants’ responses through a coding scheme that included over 50 categories and subcategories.

Findings: The researchers found that the participants utilized culturally relevant pedagogy to meet three main goals of social justice pedagogy: sociopolitical consciousness, sense of agency, and positive social and cultural identities. Through doing so, the participants guided their students in thinking critically about how social justice affects their lives. However, the participants also cited school reform models, teacher risks, and time involvement and lack of resources as challenges associated with teaching for social justice. Nonetheless, the study suggests that while the constraints in urban schools disseminate the injustices of social reproduction, culturally relevant and social justice pedagogies help prepare students to effect change in the communities and the larger society.